Corruption (Definition ,Forms , Indicators)

1. Definition of Corruption:
   Corruption refers to deterioration associated with a commodity, and it is a term that includes all negative aspects of life. When it is related to a person, it implies a lack of conscience and a weakness in religious morality.
Technically, corruption refers to the deviation of a political and economic system from its original foundations and functions. It includes the disintegration of positive components, such as justice, cooperation, and the common good, allowing behaviors characterized by fragmentation and violence to prevail. In such cases, the interests of a powerful few overshadow those of the general population.
Definitions by International Transparency Organizations: defines corruption as “the abuse of public office for private gain.” The World Bank also defines corruption as “the abuse of public office for private gain.” Corruption typically occurs when an employee accepts, requests, or extorts a bribe to facilitate a contract or public tender.
    It also arises when agents or intermediaries provide bribes to benefit from public policies or procedures, overcome competitors, and achieve profits outside the framework of applicable laws. Corruption can also encompass the exploitation of public office without bribery, such as appointing relatives or directly stealing state funds.
Mechanisms of Corruption:
1.	Bribery and Commissions: This involves paying bribes and commissions to employees and officials in the public and private sectors to facilitate deals and benefit businessmen and foreign companies.
2.	Disguised or In-Kind Bribery: This mechanism includes misappropriating public funds and securing advanced positions for relatives, such as sons, in-laws, and other family members, in the civil service and the business sector. This second level is often regarded as the most serious form of corruption prevalent in the Arab region.
   This type of corruption is referred to as "small corruption," which should not obscure the existence of what can be termed "big corruption." Big corruption is related to major deals in contracting, arms trade, and acquiring commercial agencies for major international companies. It typically occurs at political and bureaucratic levels. Each can be independent, or they may overlap and unite. Political corruption is often related to manipulating election laws or funding election campaigns, as well as the entanglement of financial interests between politicians and bureaucrats, including their relatives and allies.
    Other definitions of corruption highlight the moral aspect, describing it as "a moral deviation of some public officials," which includes bribery, embezzlement, fraud, tax evasion, and similar activities. While this definition focuses on the moral dimension, it is significant to note that this dimension is relative and can vary across different societies and historical periods.
    As some countries have moved towards privatizing public sector institutions, a new definition of corruption has emerged: "corruption is the sale of state property by government officials to fulfill personal interests." This definition, however, narrows the scope of corruption to a specific type and overlooks other important forms, such as accepting bribes for granting government licenses. Corruption can also occur in government, private institutions, and non-profit organizations. A bribe paid to a government official may be to solicit a decision or action that violates the law, or, in countries with weak legal frameworks, to enforce some of its provisions. One of the most dangerous forms of corruption is when it infiltrates the judiciary, which is supposed to uphold justice and ensure fair prosecution.
   In summary, "corruption is an economic, social, and political phenomenon present in all countries, though its severity varies. It is characterized by bureaucrats or politicians exploiting their positions for personal gain. Corruption can be major, affecting national projects like infrastructure, burdening society as a whole, or minor, including lower-level employees, with citizens bearing additional costs to complete transactions."
    Corruption occurs "at the interface between the public and private sectors." Researcher Ackerman states, "Whenever a public official has discretionary power to distribute a benefit or cost to the private sector, incentives for bribery are created." The extent of corruption relies on the magnitude of the benefits and costs controlled by public officials and the willingness of individuals and private companies to pay for these benefits or to avoid the costs. Each country must decide when these payments are legalized and when they constitute illegal corruption. The link between money and politics is profound, and each country addresses its complexities in different ways.
2. Forms  of Corruption:
     Corruption manifests in various forms, depending on the perspective from which it is viewed, including how it is practiced, the position of power held by the corruptor, and the context in which it occurs.
A. Forms of Corruption in Terms of How It Is Practiced:
   Corruption can take various forms based on its practice, with the most prominent and widespread being: bribery, favoritism, extortion, embezzlement, and fraud. Each of these will be discussed as follows:
1- Bribery:
   Bribery involves giving money or goods to invalidate the right or establish falsehood. It can be defined as paying money, either in cash or in kind, to obtain something, whether it is a right or not. 
    When an employee performs duties based on an agreement with the state and then attempts to exploit his position by accepting a fee for performing this service, it undermines the administration. 
     This act obstructs its progress, casts doubt on its integrity, and limits access to services or benefits to those who are capable rather than those who are entitled.    
    Bribery is defined as "the public employee's (or public service provider's) trading in or exploiting their job by requesting, accepting, or obtaining a gift or promise to perform or refrain from performing a job function or breaching their duties.
      Many researchers view bribery as the root of corruption, or its primary form. Generally, bribery is defined as "trading in or exploiting job or service functions by requesting, accepting, or obtaining a gift, promise, or any other benefit, to perform or refrain from performing a job function.
     It is also described as "behavior involving requesting, accepting, or taking money or any other benefit from an employee or someone in his position, for himself or others, in exchange for performing or refraining from performing a job or breaching job duties, with his knowledge."
2- Favoritism:
    Favoritism is the preference given to one party over another in offering a service without justification, often to gain certain interests. This includes prioritizing individuals or groups based on personal connections or biases rather than merit or need.
3- Nepotism:
    Nepotism involves offering benefits or opportunities to relatives or members of one's own party, such as the family, political allies, or regional groups, without justification. It is the exploitation of power or influence to favor or bias specific individuals or groups in a manner that conflicts with laws and institutional standards.
     According to sociologists, nepotism arises due to the innate tendency of humans to favor family members, relatives, or friends. It is one of the most significant types of corruption due to its economic and social risks and repercussions on the psychological makeup of individuals. Nepotism is the main reason for the unfair distribution of wealth and resources in a country and the appointment of unqualified individuals to jobs and positions, leading to feelings of injustice and social oppression. The most dangerous form of nepotism is constitutional or legalized nepotism. 
   This occurs when those in power exploit their constitutional authority to appoint individuals to important positions in ministries, security and defense agencies, diplomatic corps, and state-owned companies, pushing family members, relatives, and friends into these roles without regard to their qualifications or experience. This creates an environment conducive to the spread of corruption and is particularly prevalent in authoritarian and undemocratic countries, or those struggling with democratic transitions.
4. Extortion:
    Extortion involves obtaining money from a certain party in society in exchange for implementing interests associated with the job of the corrupt person.
5. Embezzlement:
   Embezzlement refers to the misappropriation of economic value by those responsible for managing or safeguarding it. For example, when a government official or employee seizes part of public assets owned by the people or exploits them for private gain. Embezzlement is often associated with power, as the embezzler typically exercises a certain level of influence and authority. While bribery is considered by many to be the most serious type of corruption, it can be even more detrimental when practiced by the ruling class, as it constitutes an organized and continuous looting of public resources.6. Fraud:
   Fraud is used to obtain personal benefits through deceitful practices. Some fraud methods involve bypassing laws and regulations that irresponsibly employ fraudulent mechanisms. One common form of fraud is tax evasion, which affects the national income of society. Examples include smuggling cars in the country, while officials and competent employees ignore the collection of due fees in exchange for bribes from those who smuggled the vehicles.
B. Forms of Corruption in Terms of the Position of Power Enjoyed by the Corruptor:
   From this perspective, corruption can be classified into two basic forms: political corruption and administrative corruption. 
1.Political Corruption: 
    Political corruption involves the misuse of public power by the ruling elite for illegitimate purposes, such as bribery, extortion, favoritism, and embezzlement. This type of corruption is practiced by those at the top of the political hierarchy or executive authority, encompassing political leaders and decision-makers, starting with the head of the state or ruler and extending to ministers and senior officials. These political leaders often wield considerable powers, not only in enforcing laws and regulations on behalf of the people but also in formulating them. 
    Political corruption creates a significant barrier between individuals and their democratic rights and freedoms, such as freedom of expression during general elections, freedom of thought, movement, residence, and assembly. The ruling regime often suppresses these rights and freedoms to maintain its grip on power and to impose its control, policies, and doctrine without opposition. 
2. Administrative Corruption:
   Administrative corruption pertains to deviations and misconduct associated with administrative, functional, or organizational duties. This involves violations committed by public employees during their official duties within the framework of legislation, laws, controls, and individual values. 
    This form of corruption is typically observed by lower-level government employees in government departments and units. It introduces the everyday challenges encountered by members of society when interacting with government agencies, such as tax administrations, licensing sectors, police departments, and public hospitals.
3. Corruption Indicators:
   It should be noted at the outset that there are various indicators of corruption. The World Bank identifies three main indicators: mediation, favoritism, and nepotism. Transparency International has developed and popularized several indicators, including the following:
1. Bribe Payers Index (BPI):
   The Bribe Payers Index (BPI), also called the Corruption Index of Exporting Countries, is a tool developed by Transparency International. It is measured through surveys assessing exposure to corruption in major exporting countries, specifically focusing on their willingness to pay bribes and commissions abroad. The BPI examines the extent to which companies in major exporting countries are involved in paying bribes, thus serving as a "supplier" of corruption. This emphasizes that corruption in international business transactions involves the party paying the bribe and the party receiving it.2. Global Corruption Barometer (GCB):
    Another index created by Transparency International is the Global Corruption Barometer. This index attempts to answer questions concerning the nature, impacts, and effects of corruption on various aspects of society, encompassing the business environment, private and family life, and political life.
     It determines the institutions that most frequently pay bribes and commissions, and emphasizes the bodies that citizens perceive as most corrupt. This measure reflects public opinion on corruption levels and offers an overall view of corruption in various countries. 3. Corruption Perception Index (CPI):
   The Corruption Perception Index (CPI) is the focus of this study, both theoretically and practically. This index is important because it is employed along with other indicators by international investors to make decisions associated with foreign investments. 
    It addresses economic challenges, such as creating job opportunities and reflecting on the international business community's confidence in attracting countries, considering their laws and commercial prospects. CPI contributes to increased competition among countries to enhance their rankings. It measures the perceived level of corruption in the public sector, and offers a broad view of corruption in countries.
    It is regarded as the initial stage in measuring corruption, followed by other phases that assist in analyzing and determining priorities for fighting and reforming corruption. The index assesses and ranks countries based on the perceived corruption among officials and politicians. 
    Transparency International reports are based on the premise that concrete information on corruption levels, such as lawsuit data or court cases, is challenging to obtain and compare across many countries. Instead, the index relies on the perceptions and experiences of those most directly confronted by corruption.
Methodology for Preparing the Index:
   The first step in calculating the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI) is to standardize the data from several sources. This involves translating the data into a standardized scale using a percent-matching technique, which aggregates different classifications of countries reported by each individual source.
   The second step includes applying what is called as “beta” information to the standardized data. This approach increases the standard deviation among countries involved in the CPI, allowing for more accurate comparisons between countries that appear to have similar scores.
   Finally, the total points on the Corruption Perceptions Index are identified by calculating the average of all the standardized values for each country.
   The CPI results are linked to the number of sources employed, the highest and lowest values assigned to each country, and the standard deviation and confidence level for each country. The confidence level is determined using a non-parametric methodology that estimated the underlying accuracy of the results.
    The index employs a scale ranging from 0 (perception of a high degree of corruption) to 100 (perception of a very clean state). The degrees and ranks of countries are determined based on perceptions of the extent of corruption in the public sector.